Zig 0.16 for Native SDK code

The Native SDK requires Zig 0.16.0 (minimum_zig_version in build.zig.zon; the CLI pins the same version and offers a checksum-verified download into ~/.native/toolchains/ when the zig on PATH does not match). Training data and older guides teach Zig 0.15 idioms, and 0.16 moved everything that touches the outside world — files, stdout, clocks, sleeping, process spawning, sockets — behind an explicit std.Io value, while containers became allocator-per-call. Each section below is headed by the exact compile error the old idiom produces, so search this file by error text.

Two rules resolve most failures:

• Operations on the outside world take a std.Io first (or right after the receiver). Get one from init.io in main(init: std.process.Init), from std.testing.io in tests, or from std.Io.Threaded in code with no Init to thread through.
• Containers are unmanaged: initialize with .empty and pass the allocator to every mutating call.

In a UiApp, update never sees an Io — persistence, record and relational storage, secure credentials, subprocesses, HTTP, clocks, and timers go through the typed effects channel (fx.persist, fx.storeSet/storeGet/storeDelete/storeScan/storeSetMany, fx.dbQuery/dbExec, fx.credentialsSet/credentialsGet/credentialsDelete, fx.readFile/appendFile/statFile/deleteFile/streaming file verbs, fx.spawn, fx.fetch, fx.wallMs, fx.startTimer; see native skills get native-ui). Whole-file IO stays capped at 1 MiB; streamed reads deliver 256-KiB chunks, and streamed writes finalize atomically on close. External raw paths require the filesystem permission, while the app's six resolved directories are exempt after symlink-safe canonicalization. Raw std.Io belongs in main, tests, and standalone tools. Record-store apps declare "store"; relational apps declare "sqlite"; credentials require both the "credentials" capability and permission. Credential Msg arms carry EffectCredentialsResult; consume successful get bytes immediately and never retain them in Model. The engine owns database paths and app-scoped credential namespaces, while every result still returns as a Msg and crosses the replay journal (credential bytes are redacted). Use TestHarness().createWithRelationalStore for a hermetic in-memory relational database and TestHarness().createWithCredentials for a hermetic in-memory credential store. And because Zig analyzes lazily, a 0.15-ism can hide in code only one build path references: run BOTH zig build and zig build test before calling a change done.

error: struct 'heap' has no member named 'GeneralPurposeAllocator' — allocators come from main(init: std.process.Init)

Zig 0.15 and earlier:

pub fn main() !void {
    var gpa = std.heap.GeneralPurposeAllocator(.{}){};
    defer _ = gpa.deinit();
    const allocator = gpa.allocator();
}

Zig 0.16: main takes std.process.Init, which carries the process-wide allocators, the Io, the environment, and the args — nothing to construct or deinit:

pub fn main(init: std.process.Init) !void {
    const gpa = init.gpa;                       // general purpose, leak-checked in Debug
    const arena = init.arena.allocator();       // process-lifetime arena, freed on exit
    const io = init.io;                         // the Io every std call below wants
    const args = try init.minimal.args.toSlice(arena);
    if (init.environ_map.get("HOME")) |home| { ... }
}

The CLI's own entry point is the live reference: tools/native-sdk/main.zig. Generated Zig-core apps have this shape — main(init: std.process.Init) passes init through to runner.runWithOptions(app, options, init) and init.io to the markup hot-reload watcher (see the older Zig-core examples' src/main.zig). Default TypeScript apps have no authored Zig entry point. std.heap.page_allocator still exists for allocations that live for the whole process. Library code that cannot take an Init builds its own Io: var threaded = std.Io.Threaded.init(allocator, .{}); then threaded.io() (src/platform/macos/root.zig).

error: struct 'fs' has no member named 'cwd' — file IO moved to std.Io.Dir

std.fs.cwd(), std.fs.File, and std.fs.selfExePath are gone (std.fs retains only path helpers and deprecated aliases). The directory handle is std.Io.Dir, and every operation takes io right after the receiver:

const cwd = std.Io.Dir.cwd();
const content = try cwd.readFileAlloc(io, "app.zon", allocator, .limited(1024 * 1024));
defer allocator.free(content);
try cwd.writeFile(io, .{ .sub_path = "out.txt", .data = bytes });
var file = try cwd.openFile(io, path, .{});
defer file.close(io);
try cwd.deleteTree(io, "zig-out/tmp");

Note the readFileAlloc argument order (io, path, allocator, limit) and the size limit as std.Io.Limit — .limited(n) or .unlimited. Live references: tools/native-sdk/skills.zig (readFileAlloc), src/tooling/manifest.zig (openFile), src/tooling/cef.zig tests (writeFile with std.testing.io). Path buffers size with std.Io.Dir.max_path_bytes. For the executable's own path, std.fs.selfExePath(&buf) became std.process.executablePath(io, &buf), returning the length (tools/native-sdk/skills.zig).

error: struct 'std' has no member named 'io' — writers are std.Io.Writer, stdout is std.Io.File.stdout()

std.io.getStdOut().writer() and std.io.fixedBufferStream are gone. Stdout takes io plus a caller-owned buffer, and the printable interface lives one field deep:

var stdout_buffer: [4096]u8 = undefined;
var stdout_writer = std.Io.File.stdout().writer(io, &stdout_buffer);
const stdout = &stdout_writer.interface;
defer stdout.flush() catch {};
try stdout.print("{s}\n", .{message});

Forgetting flush() means no output — the buffer is yours. std.debug.print is unchanged and needs no io; prefer it for diagnostics. The fixedBufferStream replacement is a fixed writer over a stack buffer, and the written bytes come back from buffered():

var buf: [256]u8 = undefined;
var writer = std.Io.Writer.fixed(&buf);
try writer.print("n={d}", .{42});
const written = writer.buffered();

For building a string of unknown size, use an allocating writer instead of an ArrayList writer: var w = std.Io.Writer.Allocating.init(allocator); defer w.deinit(); then print through w.writer (src/automation/server.zig). One-shot formatting still has std.fmt.bufPrint and std.fmt.allocPrint, unchanged. Functions that accept a writer take *std.Io.Writer, not anytype (tools/native-sdk/skills.zig; fixed-writer reference: src/tooling/doctor.zig).

error: struct 'array_list.Aligned(u8,null)' has no member named 'init' — ArrayList is unmanaged

std.ArrayList(T).init(allocator) is gone; the list no longer stores its allocator. Initialize with .empty and pass the allocator to every call that can allocate or free:

var list: std.ArrayList(u8) = .empty;
defer list.deinit(allocator);
try list.append(allocator, 'a');
try list.appendSlice(allocator, "bc");
const owned = try list.toOwnedSlice(allocator);

This is everywhere in the SDK — src/tooling/templates.zig builds every generated file this way, tools/native-sdk/skills.zig collects skills this way. Passing a managed-style call (list.append('a')) fails with "member function expected 2 argument(s), found 1". std.StringHashMap/std.AutoHashMap still have managed .init(allocator) forms; only explicitly Unmanaged maps take .empty (tools/native-sdk/markup_lsp.zig).

error: invalid format string 's' for type — enums print with {t}, format methods with {f}

{s} is for strings only. Enums and tagged unions print their tag name with {t} (equivalent to @tagName, which also still works):

std.debug.print("native {t}: `zig build` step failed (exit code {d})\n", .{ verb, code });

(src/tooling/verbs.zig.) Custom format methods changed shape twice over: the old four-parameter signature no longer compiles (error: struct 'fmt' has no member named 'FormatOptions'), and {} no longer calls a format method at all — it prints the default field dump silently. Declare the 0.16 signature and print with {f}:

pub fn format(self: Point, writer: *std.Io.Writer) std.Io.Writer.Error!void {
    try writer.print("({d},{d})", .{ self.x, self.y });
}
// call site
try writer.print("{f}\n", .{point});

error: struct 'time' has no member named 'sleep' / 'milliTimestamp' — clocks live on Io

std.time keeps only the unit constants (ns_per_ms, ms_per_s, ...) and epoch helpers. Sleeping and reading clocks take io and typed durations:

try std.Io.sleep(io, std.Io.Duration.fromMilliseconds(50), .awake);
const now_ns: i128 = std.Io.Timestamp.now(io, .real).nanoseconds;

(src/runtime/automation_liveness_tests.zig, src/automation/server.zig.) In app code, do not reach for either: native_sdk.nowMs() / native_sdk.monotonicMs() are the facade, fx.wallMs() is the journaled read inside update, and model.clock is the testable seam — the native-ui skill's Time section owns that pattern.

error: struct 'process.Child' has no member named 'init' — spawning is std.process.spawn(io, ...)

The two-step Child.init + child.spawn() collapsed into one call, and lifecycle methods take io:

var child = try std.process.spawn(io, .{
    .argv = &.{ "npm", "run", "build" },
    .stdin = .ignore,
    .stdout = .inherit,
    .stderr = .inherit,
});
const term = try child.wait(io);   // child.kill(io) to stop it

(src/tooling/verbs.zig, src/tooling/dev.zig — the latter also shows passing a custom environment via .environ_map.) Inside a UiApp, spawn through the effects channel (fx.spawn) instead — it is bounded, journaled, and delivers exit/output as Msgs.

error: struct 'process' has no member named 'getEnvMap' / 'argsAlloc' — environment and args come from Init

std.process.getEnvMap, argsAlloc, and argsWithAllocator are gone. main already has both: init.environ_map (a *std.process.Environ.Map) and init.minimal.args.toSlice(allocator) (tools/native-sdk/main.zig). Building an environment from scratch — for a child process, or in tests — is var env = std.process.Environ.Map.init(allocator); defer env.deinit(); try env.put("KEY", "value"); (src/tooling/dev.zig).

error: struct 'mem' has no member named 'trimRight' / 'trimLeft' — renamed trimEnd / trimStart

The directional trims renamed to match the JS/string convention; arguments are unchanged:

const line = std.mem.trimEnd(u8, raw, "\r\n");     // was trimRight
const body = std.mem.trimStart(u8, line, " \t");   // was trimLeft
const both = std.mem.trim(u8, text, " ");          // unchanged

error: struct 'std' has no member named 'net' — sockets live on std.Io.net

std.net.Address became std.Io.net.IpAddress, and connect/listen take io: std.Io.net.IpAddress.resolve(io, host, port), then IpAddress.connect(&address, io, .{ .mode = .stream, .protocol = .tcp }); stream readers/writers follow the buffered-writer shape (std.Io.net.Stream.writer(stream, io, &buffer) then .interface). Live reference: src/tooling/dev.zig (waitUntilReady/httpReady). App-level HTTP belongs in fx.fetch, not hand-rolled sockets.

error: no field named 'root_source_file' in struct 'Build.ExecutableOptions' — build.zig artifacts take modules

Zero-config apps have no build.zig — the CLI owns the build graph, so this only appears in apps that ejected or scaffolded --full. Artifacts take a module, and the module owns root source, target, and optimize:

const exe = b.addExecutable(.{
    .name = "app",
    .root_module = b.createModule(.{
        .root_source_file = b.path("src/main.zig"),
        .target = target,
        .optimize = optimize,
    }),
});
const tests = b.addTest(.{ .root_module = app_mod });

The generated ejected build.zig is the reference shape (native eject, emitted by src/tooling/templates.zig); the SDK's own build.zig uses the same pattern throughout.

Reading files and streams incrementally

file.reader() with no arguments is gone. A reader takes io and a buffer, and the stream interface lives on .interface:

var read_buffer: [4096]u8 = undefined;
var reader = file.reader(io, &read_buffer);
const bytes = try reader.interface.allocRemaining(allocator, .limited(1024 * 1024));
const line = try reader.interface.takeDelimiterExclusive('\n');

(src/tooling/manifest.zig for allocRemaining, src/tooling/toolchain.zig for line reading from stdin.) For whole-file reads, prefer readFileAlloc above.

Tests: the Io is std.testing.io

Tests never construct an Io — std.testing.io is the canonical one, next to std.testing.allocator:

test "reads the manifest" {
    var tmp = std.testing.tmpDir(.{});
    defer tmp.cleanup();
    try tmp.dir.writeFile(std.testing.io, .{ .sub_path = "app.zon", .data = source });
    const content = try tmp.dir.readFileAlloc(std.testing.io, "app.zon", std.testing.allocator, .limited(4096));
    defer std.testing.allocator.free(content);
}

(src/tooling/cef.zig and src/tooling/manifest.zig tests.) Model/Msg/update tests need no Io at all — the markup-view testing pattern in the native-ui skill is pure.

Unchanged — do not "migrate" these

std.fmt.bufPrint / allocPrint / parseInt / parseFloat, std.mem.*, std.debug.print, std.heap.page_allocator, std.time.ns_per_* and ms_per_* constants, @embedFile, std.testing.expect*, and managed std.StringHashMap / std.AutoHashMap all work as before. If code using only these fails, the problem is elsewhere.